NV Mining

Small Town Detours

HPHE history of Nevada can roughly be divided into four twenty- •*• year periods, each of them more or less coinciding with a mining cycle. The first period was characterized by the discovery and mining of the Comstock Lode and other deposits of silver and gold, some unbelievably rich and others of less importance. The next period saw a rapid decline in mining as a result of the exhaustion of rich deposits and the demonetization of silver. The third period, which began with the great silver discovery at Tonopah, followed by jewelry-ore gold at Goldfield, copper at Ely, and many scattered strikes of lesser value, continued to be highly profitable even after the richest silver and gold mines became unproductive, for the outbreak of war in Europe created a demand for many Nevada minerals.

At the beginning of the fourth period there was another rapid decline in demand, as well as a lack of large known deposits of ore rich in silver and gold. The price of silver, which had risen during the war above its 1873 level, dropped a third within a year. But the pattern cf the second period, with its great loss of population and virtual cessation of mining activity, was not repeated. Introduction of the cyanide recovery process saved the day. Up to about 1921 nearly all silver and gold recovery in Nevada had been by the ancient amalgamation process, in which the values were extracted from pulverized silver ores by amalgamizing the metal with mercury; the mercury was afterward expelled. This process recovered only part of the values, sometimes less than half. The cyanide process, invented in 1887 to enable more complete recovery of gold, and later tried on silver ores, had been little used in the State. Although more expensive than the amalgamation process, it enabled the profitable working of low grade ores and the reworking of old tailings. Copper, undiscovered at the time of the first mining collapse, also gave considerable income in the post-war period, though profits dropped sharply.

The international price of silver continued to decline after 1921 and fa 1932 reached an all-time low of 24^ cents—with an average for the

year of 28 cents—with such serious results to world trade, as well as to the silver producers, that the United States in 1933 requested an international monetary conference. Sixty-six governments participated and to prevent a further debasing of silver, the chief silver- producing countries, Australia, Canada, Mexico, Peru, and the United States, agreed, for a period of four years, to absorb thirty-five million ounces of silver annually; the share of the United States was to be at least twenty-four and a half million. The price of newly minted silver was then fixed at 64.64 cents a fine ounce, and in 1934 Congress passed an act with the declared policy of increasing to one-fourth the proportion of silver to gold in the Nation's monetary stocks. These measures have been heavily supported by Nevada members of Congress and have stimulated the mining of the State's low-grade silver ores. New discoveries of rich gold and copper deposits have also provided Nevada with sources of profit for its fifth period of mining, whose beginning has coincided with the outbreak of a second great European war.

Since 1859 Nevada has sent out approximately one billion six hundred million dollars worth of mineral, but with mining production dependent on three very unstable factors—demand, price, and the discovery and exhaustion of deposits—the reports of a single year on the value and quantity of production are apt to be highly misleading.

Nothing better illustiates the fluctuations of the mining industry than the reports of Nevada production in 1937, 1938, and 1939. In 1938 the total Nevada output of gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc was valued at only $23,529,064—slightly more than two-thirds of the return for the previous year. Gold accounted for 44 per cent of the production, copper 38 per cent, silver 12 per cent, zinc 4 per cent, and lead 2 per cent. Because of the low price of copper the three leading producers had sharply curtailed production, and the lead mines in Nye County had exhausted their deposits. But preliminary figures for 1939 showed production of gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc to a value of $29,321,587. With the new copper-producing center active and the price of copper rising, owing to the war demand, copper had risen approximately 42 per cent in quantity and 50 per cent in value since 1938. Gold production in 1939 was higher than at any time since 1916 and its value exceeded that of any year since 1912, when Gold- field was still active. This increase in production came largely from expansion at the Getchell Mine, which began bringing up ore in the spring of 1938, from gold-dredging at Manhattan, and from renewed

activity near Ely. In spite of somewhat better silver prices in 1939 production of silver went off 7 per cent, with Silver Peak accounting for a third of the total.

The Lincoln County Pioche District in 1939 produced three-fifths of the lead and nine-tenths of the zinc going out of the State.

Of the nearly six million tons of Nevada lode material sold or treated in 1938, more than 70 per cent was sent to mills where the ores were concentrated with the aid of water or air and specific gravity, and 17.5 per cent went to amalgamation and cyanide mills*

Large quantities of ores and concentrates, largely lead and copper, lire sent out of the State, principally to mills of Utah, because Nevada does not have the fuel necessary for operation of smelters. McGill remains the single Nevada smelter though plans had been made for another in the Ely district and construction was abandoned only after the great copper interests had made an agreement early in 1940 that called for smelting of Nevada copper elsewhere.

One Nevada mineral in great demand at the end of 1939 was quicksilver; though only $23,000 worth was produced in 1938 the war in Europe sent prices rocketing as the mineral is used in connection with explosives.

Tungsten mining was also very active at the beginning of 1940, after production in 1938 had fallen off two-fifths from the reported value of about $2,500,000 in 1937.

Thus, minerals remain of very great importance to the State and Nevadans have considerable property interest in the State's mines; none the less, only a relatively small part of the millions that have come from below the ground have remained in the State and most of the larger present-day properties are owned by outside companies.

Nevada was born of a mineral discovery and mining is so much a part of the State's life and history that its people speak a language often bewildering to outsiders.

Strikes (discoveries) have been chronicled annually in almost every district of the State, commencing with that in Gold Canyon in 1859. But there has been a wide difference in the extent of the discoveries and in the quantities of rich ores exposed. Some of the strikes died almost aborning, others continued to produce for a decade; in a few cases production has continued to the present. Results of development are variously described. The rich bodies of ore found on the Comstock Lode were known as bonanzas. In some other districts—Aurora, Austin, Eureka, Candelaria, Tuscarora, National, Goldfield, and Tonopah— the same word has been used, though no other bonanzas ever equaled those of the ComstocL High-grade is another term for ore of great richness. Jewelry-store ore and jewelry-ore mean about the same— exposures of rich ore beautiful in color and high in metal content.

Prospecting is an incurable disease and Nevada is full of its victims. Even those who have managed to settle down begin to move restlessly when word of a new strike spreads. The chronic cases never settle down; but even when they do make a discovery, they are sure to sell out quickly in order to avoid the dull routine of development. Most of them boast of some spot where rich float or a deposit of ore was found and lost; they are sure they will find it again some day and make a stake.

In earlier times prospecting was done with pack animals, either horses or burros, or with a buckboard and team. The burro is still the favorite, and every camp is full of tales about the diminutive donkey—of how he "kicked off a piece of rock" that led to an ore

discovery, or of how his wanderings led his master to a bonanza. A buckboard prospector (he usually has an auto now) is the fellow who does his prospecting almost entirely from the seat of his vehicle; he travels along a valley road, other prospectors tell scornfully, scanning the hills for formations (various rock structures) and even when there are distinct indications of a mineral area he will say, "Nope, I don't like it. Giddap," though only a short hike may be required for investigation.

Almost without exception prospectors have individual theories about formations and geology, and are likely to disdain advice, both lay and professional. The prospector's outfit is usually limited to bare necessities—one or two drift picks (light weight, two-pointed mine picks), a shovel, two or three drills, a light-weight single-jack, a spoon, a wooden ramrod (to tamp powder in drill holes), a small mortar, a pestle, a pan, a magnet, a small prospector's pick (combined hammer and pick), or a pole pick (larger and heavier than a prospector's pick), and possibly a compass and a magnifying glass. Occasionally he carries a few chemicals for testing in the field, and a few sticks of powder, some caps, and fuse.

When a prospector admits he is "bitten by the bug," or has "itchy feet" the man he approaches stiffens himself against an appeal for a grubstake—food, money, transportation, or all three, in return for an oral or written contract that the prospector will share whatever he finds fifty-fifty with the man who stakes him.

Prospectors in the old days could enter one another's cabins or tents in the absence of the owner, and stay as long as they liked, provided they left the camp as they found it, and indicated their names. Larders at best were scanty—even today they often consist merely of sow belly (salt or smoked pork), beans, and the makings for flapjacks and sourdough bread. A few cooking utensils and dishes, a canvas-covered roll of bedding, occasionally a small tent, one or more canteens, a sheepskin jacket, and enough extra clothing for an occasional change, is all that the veteran needs for his comfort, in addition to his grub.

A one-stamp mill is a mortar and pestle used to grind pieces of rock to a pulp for panning (washing by agitation with water). If the resulting concentrate shows color (gold, horn-silver, lead sulphide and so on), or a heel of metal, it is said to pingle, pan, or prospect. A metallic element is traced to its source (in place) by means of float (loose pieces of surface ore), or by panning loose gravel or soil. A mineral deposit is •aid to pan out when favorable results follow its development. Live

quartz is mineralized quartz. A coyote hole is shallow digging not large or deep enough to establish definite proof of a favorable prospect

The badger in particular, and gophers, squirrels, and other burrowing animals, are regarded as friends of the prospector, because their dumps, when panned, may disclose one of the prized minerals. It is said that a prospector is married to a prospect when he continues development over a long period without obtaining appreciable results.

To locate a lode mining claim or group of claims the claimant must place a location or discovery monument at the point of discovery—the point where evidence has been found of one of the numerous minerals, precious, semi-precious, or common, used in the trades and industries. The discovery monument may be a wooden stake supported by loose stones or earth, or it may be of stone or earth without the stake. A notice of location is placed with the monument, generally protected by stones, in a small can to prevent its blowing away. The notice follows a prescribed form. The claim cannot be for more than 1,500 feet along the vein or lode, or have a width of more than 600 feet—300 feet each way from the vein. The notice must give the position of the discovery in relation to some permanent feature of the landscape, name of the claim, the date of location, and the name of the locator. Names of witnesses may also be inscribed.

The law allows twenty days for establishing boundaries, which is done by placing stakes or monuments at each corner and at each side center of the rectangular bit of land. Ninety days are allowed to dig a location or discovery shaft, four by six by ten feet, or an equivalent, such as an open cut or trench, and to record a certificate of location.

Placer locations are similar to the lode, except that the claim may be either square or rectangular and cover twenty acres. No individual can claim more than one, though locators may unite to acquire con-0 tiguous claims. Assessment work, consisting of labor or improvement worth $100, must be done on each claim—lode or placer—annually.

If the prospect responds favorably to development the work may be continued indefinitely; if not the owner may at any time decide to kiss it goodbye (abandon the claim), and leave it open to location by the next prospector. In the case of a property of merit, he may either sell it directly or through a promoter, who takes a commission. Most deals are made on a time payment basis, with a bond and lease in effect during the intervening period.

Although all mine employees are known as miners, there are numerous sub-classifications, A kard-rock miner works on a lode or under-

ground; a placer miner or gravel miner works in superficial gravel deposits ; muckers are shovelers; a machineman operates a drilling machine, which is used to put in a round of holes to be loaded with powder (dynamite). The charges are fired by spitting (lighting) the fuse, with the aid of a detonating cap. The powder-monkey has charge of the explosives; chuck-tenders assist the machineman; other workers are drill sharpeners, blacksmiths, timber framers, pumpmen, trammers, timber- men, skaftmen, cagers, top workers, and hoistmen. The supe is the superintendent, the shifter a shift boss; the graveyard shift is generally from midnight to eight in the morning, mud is the end of a shift. "She's deep enough" is a notice of quitting. Face in general indicates the end of a drift or tunnel.

Rats and mice are common in metal mines; it is said that "When the rats move out, so does the miner." High-grading denotes the clandestine acquisition of rich pieces of ore (high-grade)^ a practice some miners of the past considered a legitimate perquisite—similar to the tote of Negro cooks in the south. Rocks on the chest, or miners con, is tuberculosis induced by the accumulation of silica dust in the lungs of miners.

A muck-stick is a shovel, a drift pick a light-weight sharp-pointed pick; a steel is a drill, a steel churn drill a long, straight-bit drill used without a hammer; a single jack is a light drilling hammer used in single hand work; a double-jack is a heavier hammer used in double- hand drilling; a spoon is a rod having a concave end used to clean a drill hole; a picky-poke, a small bar with offset points on both ends, is used to work ore out of narrow crevices or a narrow raise; moils and gads are short-pointed pieces of steel used to break or wedge out ore, or to cut samples across an ore deposit.

In certain mines swelling ground is encountered—an actual swelling caused by chemical action from exposure to air or water; it occasions great strain on mine timbers. Drummy ground produces a hollow sound when struck and indicates loose rock, which must be removed or supported by timbering. Broken-up ground, old, filled in workings, and caving ground frequently require the use of spiling (planking sharpened on one end), which is driven ahead and supported by a false set of timbers until a permanent set can be put in place.

Connective openings in underground workings, when development is by shaft, are known as crosscut (at right angle to the vein), drift (along the vein), level (measured depth and starting point of a crosscut or drift), winze (interior shaft sunk from drift or crosscut), raise (up-

ward opening from drift of crosscut), underhand stope (downward opening from a level to extract ore), and overhand stope (upward opening to extract ore). Waste is valueless discarded rock, a station is an enlargement of a level at the shaft for a landing, pumps, and so on. Sump is the extension of a shaft helow a station so that the floor of a cage or top of a bucket can be made level with the drift or crosscut, and to serve as a water reservoir.

The manway and ladderway are in a narrow compartment of a main shaft, and provide emergency passageways; water and air pipes, and wire cable for electric current, are usually in the manway; resting platforms are provided on the ladders in shafts at regular distances. An ore pocket is an underground bin; it may be filled with either waste or ore.

Timbering and timbers include the square set, so mortised that units may be extended in any direction, the false set (temporary timbering), and lagging (planking placed on the outside or on top of a timber set). The collar is the mouth of a shaft, and the collar set is composed of timbers on the surface and provides a protective curbing. Stulls are either sawed timbers or unhewn logs, of varying length, used to support an overhanging wall after ore has been removed from a vein; cribbing refers to timbers or logs piled crosswise to support either loose or solid ground. Ground breaks good or bad according to the effectiveness of the blasting; a drill hole is said to shotgun when the powder charge blows out without breaking down any rock or ore; a round of holes is the variable number drilled before loading and blasting, the number depending upon the size of shaft, tunnel, drift, stope, and so on; a pop or pop- shot is the blasting of a shallow drill-hole with a light charge of powder to square up a shaft or drift.

A tunnel', which has two portalsj may be driven either to crosscut a vein or along its strike (direction). Adit is a single portal.

Many geological terms are used by miners and prospectors, sometimes with non-professional looseness. Vein, lode, lead, ledge, and more rarely dike, have the same general meaning (a rock fissure filled with ore).

Vein is most commonly used and, like lode, applies chiefly to filled fissures of great width and length. The Comstock, like the Mother Lode of California, extended for many miles. Few, If any, lode* or veins are vertical; they dip at an angle of so many degrees, and are laid to strike toward certain points of the compass. Ores of commercial value do not occur along the entire length of such lodes, but are found in segments of varying length, A blind vein is one covered by eroded material; a true fissure vein if between rock walls of the same formation; a contact

vein is between walls of different formation. Talc and gouge are usually thin layers of finely ground material between a vein and its hanging wall and foot wall; an ore shootf or a pay shoot, i* that part of a vein containing ore of commercial value; the ore shoot rakes in * certain direction and has a pitch of so many degrees; barren ground is the part of a vein containing non-commercial ore; a vein has a strike, pitch, dip* break, or fault; a horse (mass in the vein of the same character as the wall rock) is of common occurrence, and the vein may pinch out (come to an end) ; veins are termed pocketty, or bunchy, when the pay ore occurs in deposits of irregular size; stringers and knife-blade seams are small veinlets where the metallic content may be highly concentrated; a frozen vein or gash vein is one in which the ore is cemented to the adjoining wall rock.